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Doukhobors
in the Boundary
by
Vera Novokshonoff, Lucy Reibin & Marion Obedkoff
Woven into the
fabric that is Grand Forks are many different nationalities, and, with their
personalities, their skills and their culture, they have enhanced "the
Boundary" and given to this city a character all its own. Of all these
nationalities, the Doukhobors, by their very numbers and distinctive culture
have had a more profound effect on the character and life of the community
than any other group. The following article by Vera Novokshonoff (Kanigan),
Lucy Reibin (Plotnikoff) and Marion Obedkoff (Grummett) outlines the history
and settlement of the Doukhobors at Grand Forks in the Boundary region of
British Columbia. Reproduced by permission from Boundary Historical Society,
Report Nos. 3 and 4, 1964.
Historical Background
The Doukhobors
comprise a large percentage of the population in the Boundary District. A
religious sect of Russian origin, their history dates back some 300 years.
Encyclopedia Britannica has this to say of their religious background:
“The name
Doukhobor was given by the Russian Orthodox clergy to a community of
non-conformist peasants. The word signifies "spirit-fighters" and was
intended by the priesthood to convey that they fight against the Spirit of
God, but the Doukhobors themselves accepted it as signifying that they
fight, not against, but for and with the Spirit. The foundation of the
Doukhobors' teaching consists in the belief that the Spirit of God is
present in the soul of man, and directs him by its word within him. They
understand the coming of Christ in the flesh, His works, teaching and
sufferings, in a spiritual sense. The whole teaching of the Doukhobors' is
penetrated with the Gospel spirit of love; worshipping God in the spirit,
they affirm that the outward Church and all that is performed in it and
concerns it has no importance for them; the Church is where two or three are
gathered gather, i.e. united in the name of Christ."
"They hold all people
equal and brethren. Obedience to Government authorities they do not consider
binding upon them in those cases when the demands of the authorities are in
conflict with their conscience; while in all that not infringe what they
regard as the will of God they willingly fulfill. They consider killing,
violence and in general all relations to living beings not based on love as
opposed to their conscience and to the will of God. They are industrious and
abstemious in their lives, and living up to the standard of their faith
present one of the nearest approaches to the realization of the Christian
ideal which has been attained. In many ways they have a close resemblance to
the Quakers."
Their renunciation of
rituals of the Russian Orthodox Church, as worshipping man-made images or
ikons
brought upon them persecution by Church and state in Tsarist Russia. This
was intensified by their refusal of military service. Influential
humanitarians, particularly the famous writer Tolstoy and the Society of
Friends in England interceded in their behalf, and arrangements were finally
made and some 7500 Doukhobor immigrants came to Canada in 1899, settling in
Saskatchewan and Manitoba.
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Group of Doukhobor
immigrants aboard the SS Lake Superior, 1899. British Columbia Archives E-07233. |
Subsequently, a
majority of them refused to comply with the swearing of the oath of
allegiance under the Homestead Act, and lost their lands which they had
worked on. These were taken away from them. They then decided to move to
move to British Columbia, where by purchasing land, instead of accepting
grants, they avoided the necessity of swearing to swear the oath of
allegiance. They settled predominantly in the West Kootenay and Boundary
Districts.
Arrival in Grand Forks
Land was purchased in 1909 by their leader Peter Lordly Verigin. John
Sherbinin, Sr., who in later years established Boundary Sawmills Ltd., was
his interpreter at the time. John Sherbinin learned the English language in
Swan River, Manitoba where he worked in a store the year these people came
into Canada. Another associate during the purchasing was Nick S. Zeboroff.
The purchases consisted of the Coryell Ranch (the site of the Brick Yard)
from the Coryell family; Murray Creek (presently Outlook) which was open
range; the Vaughan Ranch (at the foot of Spencer Hill) from the Vaughans;
4th of July Creek (Spencer) from Hoffman; and the Collins place from H. W.
Collins. This involved a total of 4,182 acres.
In March 1909, 12 men
came over to Grand Forks by train, with two women accompanying to cook for
them. These people amongst the Doukhobors were known as postniki, ones who
wished to be abstemious to the point of not eating butter to eliminate the
necessity of keeping cows, which would lead to having to sell calves for
butchering.
The first group
managed to house themselves in rough dwellings that were on the property.
Until the warm weather opened up, they were occupied cleaning things up on
the place. Another group of 14 came in April.
Industries
They put up a small
sawmill just below the site of the present Doukhobor cemetery, and started
to produce rough lumber (there was no planer) for the construction of their
communal dwellings. Later, when a factory was established a brick siding was
put on these buildings.
Logs were cut in the
vicinity and were brought to the mill on horse-drawn dollies. In the winter
sleighs replaced the dollies. Soon as the supply of logs was exhausted on
the place, the sawmill would be moved to another suitable location. William
Fofonoff was the sawyer; Alex A. Wishloff, the engineer and Philip P.
Stoochnoff, the fireman.
Orchards
The same year, spring
of 1909, they planted fruit trees - apples, pears, Italian prunes, cherries,
and other plants, such as currants, gooseberries, raspberries, etc. George
C. Zebroff and Andrew J. Gritchen were in charge of the orchards.
The wives and families of the men-folk came over in the summer of 1909, to
join in the communal effort.
Brick Plant
Production of bricks
began the same year (1909) beside the clay pit where the Coryells had run a
small plant. The same crude machinery was used. Horses supplied the power to
turn the clay mixer. Bricks one at a time, were taken by hand and put in
rows to dry, which took two weeks. They were put in a pile leaving air space
between each brick, old bricks piled around them and covered with clay so
there would be no air space. A big fire was built on both sides to burn
until the bricks got red hot. Air was let in from the top to make the fire
burn stronger. This went on for about a month and had to be under constant
watch to make sure the fire did not get too hot for the bricks to melt, nor
too cold for them to turn black. After this process, the bricks were put
under a roof for further drying.
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Doukhobor community brick
factory at Grand Forks, BC, circa 1920. British Columbia Archives C-01714. |
As early as 1910, the workers produced 22 to
24 thousand bricks a day. Even at that slow pace, 2 million bricks were
produced during the summer. William Razinkin was the original man in charge.
Later on, Mike Demoskoff and John Gritchen were prominent in the making of
bricks. In time, machinery replaced horse-power, and the operation was put
on a more efficient and productive basis. Bricks from the plant were widely
sold. Their good quality established a wide and well known reputation.
Flour Mill
The Flour Mill was
put up in 1910, with two men handling its operation. Wheat, grown in the
valley, was brought to the mill and milled by grinding on a large stone
without refining or discarding anything in the process. Bread made of this
flour was dark, but very healthy. William Fofonoff (the original sawyer) was
the miller, later replaced by his brother Peter. In 1917-18 production of
linseed oil was started at the flour mill. This became a favourite product
with the Doukhobor people. They were and still are particularly fond of
using it with sauerkraut.
Development
The work of the first
settlers that came in 1909-10 was to prepare living quarters and other
primary facilities for those that were to follow. The lumber produced by the
first sawmill was used in building communal dwellings, the first of which
was built in 1910 near the site of the Flour Mill just below the present
Doukhobor cemetery at Sion, formerly known as Fruktova.
Also in 1909, work
was started on building an irrigation pipeline. A trench 2 to 3 feet deep
was dug from First of July Creek to Sion following a line above the roadbed
of the Great Northern Railway, and pipes were laid extending for about 2
miles to bring water to the newly planted orchards and gardens. A few years
later when the Great Northern dismantled the railway track, the pipes were
relocated to follow the road bed and enlarged to 6 inches in diameter to
carry more water. Later another pipeline was built to supply homes with
drinking water, taken from a creek running halfway up the mountain at Sion.
Water was also piped at the Outlook settlement for drinking as well as for
irrigation purposes.
In 1911-12 there followed more Doukhobor settlers with their families, so
that by 1913 there were approximately 1000 souls living in the vicinity of
Grand Forks.
With more people, the
work of development progressed more rapidly. In those years there were built
approximately 24 large communal dwellings by the newcomers. At the same
time, the planted trees started to bear fruit, so that besides supplying the
local needs, fruit was also shipped to other markets. A fruit packing plant
was built in 1920. In those years a total of 120 to 130 carloads of fruit -
apples, pears, prunes, etc. were shipped annually to outside markets, as
well as some berries such as strawberries, black currants, raspberries, etc.
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Doukhobor community
blacksmith, Grand Forks, BC, circa 1920. British Columbia Archives C-01735. |
The lumbering
industry also expanded, sawmill operations were extended, tracts of timber
stands taken and worked, so that about half of the men were employed in the
lumbering industry. At that time most of the heavy work such as plowing and
cultivating the land was done by horses, for which purpose every communal
village had a team of excellent work horses, hay and feed for which were
grown on communal lands.
Altogether the
Christian Community of Universal Brotherhood Ltd., to which the first
Doukhobor settlers belonged, notwithstanding the fact that they lost their
lands in Saskatchewan and had to go heavily into debt to buy land and other
necessities, by dint of hard work and frugal living had built a thriving
economy in the first two score years of life in Grand Forks, which continued
to grow and increase in value.
It was still growing
when in 1935 a canning factory was built to process tomatoes and other small
fruits such as strawberries and raspberries. Unfortunately, this factory was
burned down in the same year. Then came years of economic depression,
starting in 1929 and continuing for a decade which had a serious effect on
the economy and which was one of the reasons that brought the foreclosure on
the mortgages held by financial companies, The Sun Life Assurance Co. and
The National Trust Co. and the subsequent buying of the land by the
Government of British Columbia to prevent mass evictions.
We deem it proper to
return back and look on some other facets of Doukhobor life.
Communal Way of Life
At the head was the
central administration under the leadership of Peter Lordly Verigin. The
people were split up into villages represented by the large apartment-like
houses, where from about 35 to 40 members resided. Each village operated
separately, with particular tasks assigned to its members. Where necessary,
the men were sent out to earn money outside the community, while the rest
including the older folk, women and children had to do the work at home. In
charge of each village was an appointed "Elder." All the members contributed
to the community according to their capacity, and were doled out equal
portions according to their needs. In other words, you put into the
community what you earned or produced, and received in equal measure with
the rest of the members, what you required. Concentration was on a pure and
simple life, without luxuries.
A policy of austerity
was in effect both for spiritual and economic reasons. During the wartime in
1914, children were not fed any bread and ate a thick noodle soup instead.
The rest of the folk were on a frugal diet of mamalyha
made of beans, peas and wheat cooked together. At the time the Community had
food in abundance, but it was not indulged in out of compassion for the
suffering by the rest of the world.
Housing
A regular .pattern
persisted in the building of homes. The main floor of the two storey brick
houses contained the large communal kitchen and social centre or living
room; the bedrooms were upstairs. In the kitchen, a long table or two stood
alongside the windows with a special table for the children. The stove was
in about the centre of the room, and there would also be a brick Dutch oven.
The living room was used for occasions like a marriage, prayer meetings,
singing group, a funeral or for visitors. Adjacent to the large brick house,
there was a U-shaped unit of one floor rooms. These provided room for the
older folk to sleep in, as well as washing and storage facilities.
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Doukhobor community home,
Grand Forks, BC. British Columbia Archives C-01729. |
Meals
For each large
communal house, two women, interchanging weekly had to do the cooking, and
the baking of the large round loaves of bread in the Dutch oven. Children
ate at a separate table from the adults. Four persons ate out of the same
bowl using wooden spoons. This may sound unsanitary, but the fact remains
that in those years there were few illnesses among the people and they were
very healthy.
After everyone sat down at the table, a hymn would be sung. After saying
grace, everyone would eat quietly, without making a racket with the utensils
or idle chatter.
The most well-known
Doukhobor dish is borshch - a type of vegetable soup. Other dishes were rice
soup; cereal made from wheat; cooked halooshki, (dumplings in soup);
blintsi
(a sort of pancake); vinigret (a salad of beets, apples, beans, dilled
cucumbers and sauerkraut); kvas (grated cucumbers and green onions thinned
with water); vegetables and fruit. Tomatoes and cucumbers (as well as
cabbage for sauerkraut) were salted in big crocks for winter use. Bread was
dried, (like crumpets) for eating with rice soup. The main beverage was a
fruit juice made from dried apples, prunes and other fruit.
Prayer Meetings
Prayer meetings in
the early years were held early in the morning (before breakfast) on
Sundays, as well as on some other days. It was the custom then to attend
prayer meetings attired in homemade linen clothes, and in the summer months
barefoot. Persons entering the meeting greeted the congregation with the
words: "Glory to God!" To which those gathered replied: "We glorify and
thank God for His grace!" At the meeting the women stood on the right side
and the men on the left; in the center between them stood a table on which
bread, salt and water was placed. Each person recited a psalm standing
before the table. After recitations three psalms were sung and the Lord's
Prayer was said, the end of which all present bowed touching the ground, and
said that they bow to God, His Son, Christ and the Holy Ghost. There
followed the singing of hymns and discussion on any important matter that
happened to come up.
In later years with
the coming of Peter P. Chistiakov Verigin, the form of the prayer meeting
reverted back to that practiced by Doukhobors in Russia in times past, as
follows: On entering the meeting hall, a person greeted those present with
the words "Glorious God is praised", and the congregation answered: "Great
is the name of the Lord and His glory is throughout the world." Some of the
men, women as well as children recited psalms, after which the congregation
sang psalms at which time the second man in the first row came up to the
first man, they clasped each other's hand and bowed to each other two times,
then kissed each other and bowed once more, then the second man turned and
bowed to the women and they bowed in reply. After a number of men performed
this ritual, which denoted their reverence for the spirit of the divine life
that is part of man, their forgiveness and love for each other, the women
performed the same ritual of reverent bowing. This being accomplished, a man
stepped out near the table and recited the Lord's Prayer, at the conclusion
of which he said: "Here we kneel in reverence to Father, Son and the Holy
Ghost," and the congregation bowed to the ground. The reciter then said:
"Christ has arisen," and the congregation answered: "In Truth He has
arisen." The second time they bowed to the ground they said: “Eternal memory
to Witnesses of Truth." The third time they bowed saying: “God grant the
living good health, forgive us and strengthen us in Your ways." After this a
few hymns were sung and time was devoted to discussions on matters of social
and spiritual significance.
Weddings
When a young couple
decided to get married, the boy, along with his parents, went to the girl's
house to ask her parents for the hand of their daughter.
In the ceremony that
followed, everyone read prayers and then someone would read the Lord's
Prayer. The parents gave the couple their blessing and wished them luck.
Then the couple kissed both his and her parents and bowed to their feet.
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Doukhobor women haying on
community land, Grand Forks, BC, circa 1920. British Columbia Archives C-01721. |
The wedding took
place two or three days later, for there were no engagement parties or rings
given. The bride gathered her belongings together with the bedding and tied
them up in a bundle (there were no hope chests at that time).
On the wedding day,
the groom, along with his parents, went on a horse and buggy after the bride
and her parents. When they arrived at the groom's place, everyone exchanged
greetings and wished the couple luck. Only the 30 to 40 members who lived in
the big house, where the lived, attended the wedding. The food served was
the same as a Sunday dinner. There was borshch, plove, and atvar (a beverage
made out of fruit). The clothes which the bride and groom wore were their
best Sunday clothes.
Funerals
The dead were not
taken to a mortician but were bathed and dressed at home. The coffin was
also made at home. People came during the daytime as well as in the evening
to share the grief with the mourning family. Prayers and psalms were sung in
honour of the dead person. There were no dinner lunches served as there are
now.
The dead were buried
two and a half days after they died. On the next day the family and close
relatives went to the grave to pay their respects to the dead. They sang
hymns and other songs.
After a period of six
weeks, the friends and relatives gathered once more at the grave in memory
of the dead person. Once again they read prayers sang hymns. This ritual was
repeated after a year was up.
Education
No special outfits
were worn by the children when they went to school. Both boys and girls up
to twelve years of age wore a dress-like garment. They wore no shoes and had
nothing on their heads. The school age was limited to the age of 12 years,
so very few children went to school; mostly boys.
Each district had a
school to which the children had to walk. During the winter months, the
children were taken on sledges pulled by horses.
The children were
taught reading, writing, grammar and some arithmetic. They only went as far
as grade five or six. Due to the fact that the children were always speaking
Russian, and often had to stay away from school in order to help at home,
their progress in English school was quite slow.
One of the first
schools called "Carson School" was built close to where the Hill View Store
is presently located. Later there was a school built at Fruktova.
At home the children
were taught to read and write in Russian.
Skills and Crafts: The Process of Making Linen Cloth from Flax
The flax seeds were
planted very closely together, in the Spring time. When the seeds were ripe,
the whole plant was pulled out and tied into bundles. These bundles were set
upright, in the sunny fields, so that they would dry thoroughly. Wooden
clubs were used to thresh the flax so that all the seeds fell out.
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Doukhobor children in
flax field, Grand Forks, BC, circa 1920. British Columbia Archives C-01745. |
The stocks were then
soaked in water for about two weeks. When the stocks were saturated with
water, they were put into bundles and once again dried in the sun. Then, the
stocks were put into a block of wood (that had been hollowed out), and were
threshed by a large wooden hammer to soften the cellulose. They were then
put through home-made combs dividing the stock into thin fibres (by now, all
the waste materials had fallen off). The thin fibres were put through a
spinning wheel and put tightly on a wooden roll. After the yarn was taken
off the wooden roll, it was put into a solution of hot water and flax seed
in order to make the yarn slippery. It was wrung, pounded and hung out to
dry. When it was dry, the yarns were separated and put on a home-made
machine for weaving. There were about 30 yards in one weaving. The cloth was
then ready for bleaching.
White ash (taken from
burnt weeds and sunflower stems) was gathered and put into boiling water.
After this solution stood for a while, it was strained through a canvas
sheet. The cloth was placed in that solution and stayed there for two days.
A thorough washing was given to the cloth after it was taken out of the
solution; and it was placed in the sun to dry. When the cloth had dried, it
was placed on a wooden roller used for ironing, and pounded with a flat
stick which resembled a scrub board. Then the cloth was ready to be used for
sewing.
After the sheep had
been sheared, the wool was washed, dried and combed with home-made combs. It
was then spun into a yarn on a spinning wheel. The yarn was placed in a
paste made out of hot water and flour. After the yarn was dried, it was put
on a home-made weaving machine. The cloth was washed with soap and water in
a process of preshrinking. It could be dyed with different colours. The
woolen yarn was also used to knit stockings, mittens and sweaters.
Other Skills and Handicrafts
The women busied
themselves with other handicrafts such as embroidering, and crocheting
various pieces. The men carved wooden spoons, salt and pepper shakers and
various pieces of furniture. They also made spinning wheels as well as
different of machines for weaving cloth. Harnesses were made out of leather,
which was bought in bulk. There were shoemakers who made fine quality shoe
of leather.
Conclusion
It seems proper to
note that in October of 1924 the Doukhobor Community was bereaved by the
tragic loss of Peter Lordly Verigin, who was killed in a deliberately set
explosion of a passenger car in a C.P.R. train while on his way from
Brilliant to Grand Forks. The explosion occurred just after the train left
the station at Farron, B.C. He was an outstanding personality and gave
leadership in the spiritual as well as the economic life of the Community,
which deeply felt the loss of their revered leader. His place as the leader
of the Doukhobors was taken by his son, Peter P. Chistiakov Verigin, who
came to Canada in October, 1927 and who died in February, 1939.
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Doukhobor farm near Grand
Forks, BC, circa 1930. British Columbia Archives C-02659. |
After it became
evident that the lands and property of the Christian Community of Universal
Brotherhood would be foreclosed by the companies holding mortgages, he
re-organized the Community under the new name of the Union of Spiritual
Communities of Christ, to which belong most of the Doukhobors living at
present in Grand Forks. The name of Peter Petrovich Chistiakov Verigin is
still revered by his followers.
The members of the
Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ, while living on an individual
basis are still favour of establishing a communal or co-operative way of
life. At the present time, they have in Grand Forks a large cooperative
store and a service garage under the name of Sunshine Valley Co-op Society.
This brings to a
close this short summary of the history of the Doukhobor people in the Grand
Forks and Boundary area.
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