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Several Characteristics of Doukhobor Society, 1805
Translated by Robert Pinkerton
In 1805, a “gentleman of the highest respectability” in St. Petersburg, Russia composed a tract entitled “Nekotorye cherty ob obshchestve Dukhobortsev” [“Several Characteristics of Doukhobor Society”]. It was a sympathetic exposition of the religious and social teachings of the Dukhobortsy. Ten years later, the tract was published as an appendix to Robert Pinkerton’s translation of “The Present State of the Greek Church in Russia” by Metropolitan Platon of Moscow (New York: Collins and Col, 1815). Reproduced below, it contains the earliest systematic account of Doukhobor religious doctrine and provides invaluable historic insights into the belief system of our Doukhobor ancestors. Editorial comments and postscript by Jonathan J. Kalmakoff.
A sect of this description could not long remain unnoticed, or be secure
from molestation, both by their neighbours and by government, especially as
both were unacquainted with their principles. Accordingly, they suffered
from all quarters continual persecution, being constantly exposed to
reproach, and not infrequently to imprisonment. In their intercourse with
their neighbours, they endured the most abusive language, and other insults;
and all were ready to construe every action of their lives in such a way, as
to point them out the disturbers of the public peace, and as the offscouring
of society.
The higher departments of government judged of them according to the reports
of the lower departments; and hence many of them were sent into exile, as if
they had been the worst of criminals. In this manner the persecution of the
Dukhobortsy continued, with few intermissions, until the reign of the humane
and peaceable Alexander I.
In 1801, the senators Lopukhin and Neledinsky, being sent to review the state of affairs in the government of the Ukraine (Sloboda-Ukraine province, Russia – ed.), were the first who represented these people to the emperor in a true light. According to their representations, his Majesty granted the scattered Dukhobortsy permission to remove from the governments of Ukraine and Malorus (“Little Russia”, the Ukrainian provinces of Russia – ed.) and to settle at a place called Molochnye Vody, in the government of Tavria. Here the Dukhobortsy formed two settlements in 1804, and their brethren from the governments of Voronezh and Tavria were also permitted to settle along with them.
The name Dukhobortsy was already given to this sect in 1788, probably by the
then-Archbishop of Ekaterinoslav Amvrossi, who, by this designation,
no doubt intended to point out the heresy contained in their doctrines; for
Dukhoborets literally signifies a wrestler with the spirit.
Formerly they were called by government Ikonobortsy, on account of
their rejecting, with other things, the use of pictures (ikons – ed.) in
their worship. But the Dukhobortsy call themselves Christians, and
all other people they denominate men of the world.
The origin of this sect is altogether unknown to its present members; for
they are in general illiterate, and they possess no written history of the
founders of their sect. Their traditionary story affirms, that they are the
descendants of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abedriego, who suffered for not
falling down to worship the golden image of Nebuchadnezzar. No doubt they
intend to intimate by this, that they not only suffer, but are willing to
suffer, rather than worship the ikons, or observe the external rites
and ceremonies of the Greek church.
The Dukhobortsy, till of late, had been very much scattered in different
parts of the empire; seldom could as many of them be found in one place as
to form a separate village. But, exclusive of those in the southern
provinces above-mentioned, they are dispersed throughout the governments of
Caucasus, the Don Cossacks, and Arkhangel’ in
Lapland, and even in Irkutsk, and Kamchatka.
They say also that there are many of their members in Germany and Turkey;
but that they are more persecuted in Germany than even among the
Mohammedans.
The communication which they have with each other is only occasional; as
when any of their number travels into distant provinces on business;
however, when affairs of importance happen among them, they send some of
their members expressly to give information.
Excepting their principles of faith, the Dukhobortsy, in their domestic and
social life, may serve as examples to all other sects. In 1792, the governor
of Ekaterinoslav, Kokhovsky, in his reports to the general
procurator, Vesemskoy, at that time represents the Dukhobortsy as leading
most exemplary lives; being sober and industrious, diligent in their
occupations, and of good and gentle dispositions. The taxes, and other
public obligations, they pay and perform punctually, and in this respect
were always before their neighbour peasants; otherwise the agents of
government in the villages were ever ready to catch an occasion to harass
them. Laziness and drunkenness are vices not suffered among them; so that
those who are infected with such sins are excluded from their society.
As soon as we approach, however, and take a view of their creed, we at once
see the contrast between it and that of their surrounding neighbours. The
Dukhobortsy never enter the national churches, or bow before the pictures in
time of prayer; they do not cross themselves, or observe the appointed
fasts; they take no part in the joys and corrupt deeds of the men of the
world. These are causes sufficient to separate them for ever from the
company of the other peasants, and to expose them to continual persecution.
The Dukhobortsy affirm that every external rite, in regard to salvation, is
of no avail whatever, and that the outward church, in consequence of her
corruption, is now become a den of thieves. On this account, they confess
that alone to be the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church, which
the Lord gathered by his appearance, which he enlightens, and adorns, by the
gifts of the Holy Ghost, and which on this account is the company of the
faithful, or of true believers, in all ages.
In this persuasion they frequently have meetings among themselves, but have
no stated place appointed for this purpose, as they account every place
alike holy; hence these meetings are held in the first convenient place they
can find. Neither do they appoint any particular days for this purpose,
accounting all days alike. They have, therefore, no holidays, but their
meetings are frequently held on the holidays appointed by the church, when
other people are not engaged in labour; for if they were to work on the
holidays of their neighbours, they say, they should subject themselves to
double persecution, and might be represented as disobedient to the laws of
the empire.
Each of them is at liberty to hold a meeting in his own house, and to invite
such of his brethren as are near him to attend. In such meetings, they
always sup together; and should the brother in whose house the meeting is
held not be able to provide food sufficient to entertain his guests, in that
case they either send themselves, before hand, provisions for this purpose,
or bring them along with them.
Being assembled, they salute one another; the men salute the men, and the
females the females, by taking each other by the right hand, and thrice
bowing and kissing one another; at the same time every one pronounces a
short prayer. These three bows and three embraces, they perform in the name
of the three one (tripartite – ed.) God, to the purifying of the flesh, and
to the rooting out of pride. They take each other by the hand as a mark of
their union in love, in calling, in knowledge of judgment, and of the unseen
God, who is within them.
In the course of the meeting, they pray one after another, sing psalms, and
explain the word of God; but as the greater part of them are unable to read,
most of this is performed in their assemblies extemporaneously. They have no
appointed priests, but confess Jesus Christ alone to be the only just, holy,
pure, undefiled priest, separated from sinners, and exalted above the
heavens; he also is their only Teacher. In their assemblies they instruct
each other from the Scriptures; every one speaks according to the grace
given him, to the admonishing and comforting of his brethren. Even women are
not excluded from this privilege; for they say, “Have not women enlightened
understandings as well as men?” They pray standing or sitting, just as it
happens. At the end of the meeting they again embrace each other thrice, as
at the beginning, and then separate.
What has been said above of their time and place of meeting, regards in
particular those Dukhobortsy who are scattered among the villages of the
peasants (Orthodox – ed.); but those that are settled at the Molochnye Vody
have their meetings in the open air when the weather permits, in two
circles, the one of men, and the other of women.
The virtue which shines with greatest lustre among the Dukhobortsy is
brotherly love. They have no particular private property, all things are
common. After their settling at the Molochnye Vody, they were enabled to put
this in practice without any hindrance; for they laid all their private
property together, so that now they have one general purse, one general
flock, and in their two villages two common magazines for corn, out of which
every brother takes according to his wants.
They are also hospitable to strangers, and entertain most of them at the
expense of their society, having a house built for the express purpose of
accommodating strangers. They are also praised for their compassion to such
as are in distress; even the governors of the places where they live have
borne testimony to the readiness with which the Dukhobortsy assist their
neighbours in affliction. Solomon's maxim is strictly observed among them,
"A righteous man regardeth the life of his beast," Proverbs xii. 10.
They have no kind of punishments among them except expulsion from their
society; and this takes place only for such transgressions, as prove the
person evidently to have lost the spirit of Christianity, since, were such a
one suffered to remain among them, he would become a stumbling block to the
brethren. But as soon as any of them observes a brother guilty of a
transgression, he reproves him for his fault, according to the spirit of the
gospel. If this is not laid to heart, he is then admonished before two or
more. Should he still remain impenitent, he is finally brought before the
whole society; after which, in case of contumacy, he is excommunicated from
their society.
It sometimes happens, though seldom, that individuals leave their society
without having done any thing to deprive them of its privileges, for no
other reason but to have liberty to live as they please; and it has even
happened that wives have left their husbands from the same cause. Such they
do not restrain; but grant them liberty to depart if they will, and divide
with them a share of their common property. But those who are excluded from
their society, and also such as leave it, may again be admitted, if they
give evidence of their repentance, and quit their sinful courses, of which
there have been few instances.
Their occupations are regulated according to the knowledge of individuals
among them. Hence, the merchant engages in merchandize, and the husbandman
in agriculture. But as the greater part of them are husbandmen, so the
cultivation of the ground is their chief employment; and in their
estimation, this employment is more honourable than all others.
In their society they have no superior powers, such as magistrates to govern
and command; but the society at large governs itself and each individual in
it, and they have neither written laws, nor regulations of any kind. Judging
according to the spirit of common people in general, it might be expected
that the Dukhobortsy would be often troubled with divisions; this however,
seldom happens; for at the Molochnye Vody, we find frequently two or three
young families all living together in one house.
In respect to the government of their families, the weakness of the female
sex, inexperience of youth, and education of children, naturally require the
superintendence of age and experience, to preserve order. Hence it naturally
follows, that in every family the father is the governor, who is bound to
care for the wants of his family, to look after the conduct of his children,
to correct their faults, and teach them the law of God. When the father
dies, the eldest son succeeds him.
The manner of educating children among the Dukhobortsy is simple, and
peculiar to themselves. As soon as a child begins to speak, the parents
teach him to get by heart, short prayers and psalms, and relate to him such
passages out of sacred history as are calculated to engage his attention. In
this manner they continue to instruct their children, till they are of age,
in the doctrines of the gospel. When the children have thus learned by heart
several prayers and Psalms, they go along with others to their meetings,
repeat their prayers, and sing Psalms with the rest. But the Dukhobortsy
look upon it as the duty of every parent, not only to instruct his own
children, hut also, when opportunity occurs, to teach those of his neighbour
also, and to restrain them from folly and sin wherever he observes it.
In this way, the sentiments of the parents are, by little and little, formed
in the minds of their children, and are rooted in their young minds by the
exemplary conduct of their parents. Hence, it has been observed, that the
children of the Dukhobortsy are distinguished among all other children, like
stalks of wheat among oats.
1. The chief and distinguishing dogma of the Dukhobortsy is, the
worshipping God in spirit and in truth; and hence they reject all
external rites as not being necessary in the work of salvation.
2. They hold no particular creed, but only say, in regard to themselves,
that they are of the law of God, and of the faith of Jesus. The symbol of
faith of the Greek church or the Nicene creed they not only respect, but
confess all that it contains to be truth; they merely, however, assign it a
place among their common Psalms.
3. They confess one God in three persons (the Trinity – ed.)
incomprehensible. They believe that in memory we resemble God the Father, in
intelligence God the Son, and in will God the Holy Ghost. Also, that the
first person is the Father of light, our God; the second person, the Son of
life, our God; and the third person is holy rest, the Spirit of our God. The
likeness of the three one God: the Father is height, the Son is breadth, the
Holy Ghost is depth. These also they take in a moral sense. The Father is
high, and none can comprehend him; the Son is broad in intelligence; and the
Holy Ghost is deep, past searching out.
4. The conceptions they have of Christ are founded on the doctrines of the
gospel; they confess his incarnation, his acts, doctrines, and sufferings;
but in general, they take all this in a spiritual sense, and affirm that all
that is said in the gospel must be perfected in us. Thus, Christ must be
begotten in us, be born in us, grow up in us, teach in us, suffer in us, die
in us, rise again from the dead in us, and ascend into heaven in us; and in
these different acts they understand the process of regeneration, or of a
man's being born again. They say, that Jesus himself is, and was, the
eternal and living gospel, and that he sent out his disciples to preach
himself in the word; for he himself is the word, which is written only on
the hearts of those who believe in him.
5. They believe that in God and in his Christ alone salvation is to be
found; but that if a man does not call upon God out of a pure heart, even
God himself cannot save him.
6. To the salvation of man, unfeigned faith in Christ is absolutely
necessary; but faith without works being dead, so also works without faith
are dead. True and living faith is a hearty reception of the gospel.
7. With respect to baptism, they say that they are baptized by the word, in
the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, as Christ commanded his
apostles, saying, "Go ye and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name
of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." That this baptism
takes place when a man truly repents, and in the sincerity of his heart
crieth unto God; then his sins are forgiven him, and his affections are no
more set upon the world but upon God. This is the only baptism which they
confess for the remission of sins.
Regeneration and spiritual baptism are, in their opinion, one and the same
thing. The means of attaining regeneration are a living faith in God and
prayer. The marks of the regenerated, or of one's being baptized from above,
are the works of the new man. However, this baptism they hold to have seven
degrees: 1st, Baptism for the remission of sins. 2d, Anointing with
ointment, that is, the understanding of ointment, or the knowledge of the
ways of the Lord. 3d, The understanding the word of the Lord. 4th, The
anointing with holy oil, or the unction of prayer. 5th, Spiritual
confession. 6th, Spiritual communion. And 7th, the agony of blood, or
humility. These seven degrees also signify their union with God. If any one
has attained to an union with God, which they place in the seven degrees of
spiritual baptism or regeneration, such a one lives in God, and by his
spiritual eyes can behold the angels.
They look upon external baptism with water as of no use, and say that it
only washes off the impurities of the body.
8. They believe that to every Christian are given two names, one by his
parents when he is born, and another by his heavenly Father at his spiritual
baptism, according to his works. This last name is unknown on earth, but
shall be made known in heaven.
9. Those who confess their sins to their heavenly Father, who is infinitely
good and merciful, shall receive the remission of their sins by means of
faith and prayer. Those who sin against their brethren among the Dukhobortsy
confess their faults before all, and beg forgiveness of those they have
offended. They who are known to conceal their sins, are by them accounted
great transgressors; if any one after a third admonition does not make
confession, they exclude him from their society. They severely condemn such as call themselves sinners, and who by their feigned confessions, seek after a sort of humility which is founded in pride, or who try by confessions, to excuse themselves; but are not careful to reform their lives. When a man falls, they say, he ought immediately to rise again, ask forgiveness of God with a contrite spirit, and resist with all his might temptations to a similar fall in future.
10. In regard to the Lord's supper, they say, that they always
communicate in the holy and life-giving, immortal and awful mysteries of
Christ to the remission of sins, by spiritually and internally receiving
into themselves the word of God which is Christ; and such communion, they
say, penetrates the judgment of man, through bones and marrow. But the
ordinance of communicating of the body and blood of Christ, under the
symbols of bread and wine, they do not receive; for they say, that bread and
wine enter the mouth, like our common food, and are of no advantage whatever
to the soul.
11. They place fasting, not in abstaining from food of any kind, but in
abstinence from gluttony and other vices: in parity, in humility, and
meekness of spirit. Abstinence from flesh, they say, is of no advantage to
the soul.
12. They respect departed saints, but do not invoke them for help, saying,
that in pleasing God they benefited themselves, and that we ought only to
follow their example. This they call invoking their good works.
They do not, however, consider the actions of those who have pleased God to
have been indiscriminately holy.
13. They do not hold marriage to be a sacrament. It is constituted among
them simply by the mutual consent of the parties. And as there are no
distinctions among the Dukhobortsy of family or rank, so the parents, in
general, do not interfere in the marriages of their children. They have
scarcely any sort of ceremony on such an occasion; a reciprocal consent, and
promise before witnesses that the parties resolve to live together, is
sufficient. Sometimes, however, this mutual consent is not made evident till
the bride has become a mother. But whenever a man is known to have seduced a
woman, he cannot refuse to make her his wife; otherwise he is excluded from
their society. Oh the death of one of the parties, the other is at liberty
to marry again, even a third time, which, however, seldom happens; for they
say Christians ought to subdue their sensual desires.
14. They preserve the memory of their departed friends only by imitating
their good deeds; for they neither pray for nor to them. They say, the Lord
himself will remember them in his kingdom. But they do not style the
departure of a brother out of this world death, but call it a
change; and hence they do not say, our brother is dead, but our
brother is changed.
They have no particular ceremonies at burial, nor do they mourn over the
change of their friends. When the Dukhobortsy lived in persecution, they
buried their dead in the common burying places; but since persecution has
ceased against them, and they are known, they bury their dead in their own
particular burying grounds.
15. They believe in the creation and fall of man, as stated in the Holy
Scriptures, that is, that his body is taken from the earth, and that God
breathed into him the breath of life. That before his fall his soul was pure
and holy, and his body was vigorous and perfect; or, as they express it,
he lived in a body of gentleness.
The Dukhobortsy say, that the flesh of man is made of earth, his bones of
stone, his sinews of roots, the blood of water, his hair of grass, his
thoughts he receiveth from the wind, and grace from heaven. This may explain
their common proverb: "Man is a little world" (microcosm - ed.). In regard to the soul
of man, they say that the soul is power, power in God, and God in
man.
16. Concerning original sin, they believe, that from wicked parents are born
wicked children; nevertheless, they affirm, that the sins of the parents do
not hinder the salvation of their children; and that with respect to
salvation; every one shall render an account to God for himself.
17. In respect to the future state of the righteous, they say that the
kingdom is in power, and paradise in words; that the souls of the righteous
are in the hands of God, and therefore no harm can come near them. Of the
sufferings of the wicked, and of hell, they say, that the souls of the
wicked wander in darkness, ever in expectation of sudden destruction, and
that hell is founded on wrath.
Of the destination of the soul after death, they say that a man's actions
will either justify or condemn him; and therefore, that the works of men in
this world bring every one to his place in the next, in which there is no
repentance.
18. With regard to the resurrection of the righteous and the wicked at the
last day, with their present bodies, the Dukhobortsy do not determine any
thing dogmatically, but leave that event entirely to God.
19. They, in general, conceal their opinions in regard to mysterious points,
from those with whom they are not intimately acquainted, and justify
themselves by the words of our Saviour, "Cast not your pearls before swine."
They say this is not the time to reveal these things; but that ere long they
shall be made manifest unto all.
In like manner, in regard to the second coming of the Saviour, they say,
that judging from the events which now take place in the world, we may
expect him soon.
20. They do not consider it to be essential to salvation that a man should
be a member of their society; they say that it is necessary only to
understand the ways of the Lord, and to walk in them, and to fulfill his
will, for that this is the way of salvation.
21. The Dukhobortsy call the theatre the school of Satan, where he himself
and his agents preside. They compare those who dance either on the stage or
in private companies to young geese, which in spring, go out with their dame
and frolic upon the green, but still, they say, they are but geese, and have
no knowledge of God, and when the frost comes they sit with their heads
beneath their wings, and hide their feet from the cold.
22. They are distinguished for the orderly and cleanly manner in which they
live; and they say, that it is becoming in a Christian to live in this way.
In regard to having the pictures or portraits of eminent men or of saints in
our dwellings, they observe that they serve to adorn the house, and are
agreeable to the eyes; but, to worship before them, they consider as a
mortal sin.
23. Of shaving the beard and making use of tobacco, which some Raskolniks (schismatics
– ed.) look on as sinful, they say that as neither the one nor the other
makes a Christian, therefore they are both matters of indifference. That if
it were proper for them as peasants to shave the beard, they would have no
objections to do so.
24. When the Dukhobortsy lived in a concealed manner, necessity obliged them
to conform to many of the external usages of the Greek church; but as they
paid no internal respect to them, they concealed their real opinions by
giving to every article and ceremony of the external service a different
name and a spiritual signification; thus, for instance, in regard to the
five loaves of shewbread, they called the first, the union of the true
faith; the second, unfeigned love; the third, the value of the knowledge of
truth; the fourth, the reception of the holy mysteries; the fifth, the
enlightener. Being accustomed to express their ideas in this allegorical
manner, they give a moral signification to many other objects.
Thus, to every day of the week they give the following denominations by way
of short moral lessons.
The seven heavens they distinguish by the seven following gospel graces. The
first heaven is humility; the second, understanding; the third, self-denial;
the fourth, brotherly love; the fifth, mercy; the sixth, counsel; the
seventh, love, where God himself reigneth. In like manner, these twelve
Christian virtues, they denominate the twelve friends. These friends are:
As examples of their manner of prayer, we subjoin the two following, from
among those which they use in their meetings: First.
Second.
25. The Dukhobortsy, who came to St. Petersburg in the year 1804 to entreat
permission of the Emperor for their brethren to settle at the Molochnye Vody,
and from whom many of the above particulars were taken, being ready to set
out on their return, just on the eve of the festival of the birth of Christ,
were entreated to stop and spend the holidays in that city. But they
replied: "for us there is no difference of days, for our festivals are
within us." When they were also admonished, after receiving their privileges
from government, that they should live in their new settlements in peace,
and should not attempt to propagate their opinions in that quarter, they
replied, "All that is needful is sown already; now the time of harvest is
come, and not the seed-time." * * Most of these interesting particulars concerning the Dukhobortsy I have taken from a manuscript account of them in the Russian language, composed by a gentleman of the first respectability in Petersburg. I also perused this manuscript with a Russian nobleman, who, in 1808, was the civil governor of the province of Kherson and was well acquainted with the principles and character of the Dukhobortsy at Molochnye Vody.
Postscript
The 1805 tract has been acclaimed by many scholars to be the earliest systematic account published about the Doukhobors. Yet in spite of this, its author has yet to be positively identified.
Ostensibly, the tract was published in 1815 as part of the translated works of Metropolitan Platon (Levshin) of Moscow (1737-1812). However, the extreme sympathy of its author towards the Doukhobors would seem to preclude the cleric from being the original writer, given the hatred of the sect by the Orthodox clergy.
The most likely author of the tract is Ivan Vladimirovich Lopukhin (1756-1816), an envoy sent by Tsar Alexander I to investigate the Doukhobors in the southern provinces in 1801. Intellectually, Lopukhin was very receptive to Doukhoborism, and he is cited by several scholars as the “probable” author of the tract appearing in Platon’s volume. In the footnote at the end of the tract, the translator wrote that the “interesting particulars concerning the Dukhobortsi” were taken from a Russian language manuscript “composed by a gentleman of the first respectability in Petersburg.” In 1805, the date of composition assigned to the tract, Lopukhin was a senator, certainly a respectable position, who had first-hand experience with the Doukhobors. And as scholar Svetlana Inikova has observed, he had a motive to write the tract at that time. In 1805, Lopukhin was accused by the Orthodox heirarchy of helping the Doukhobors and of predisposing Tsar Alexander I favourably toward the sect. Right at the time he needed to justify himself, there appeared the “Nekotorye cherty ob obshchestve Dukhobortsev” [“Several Characteristics of Doukhobor Society”], painting the Doukhobors as a religious-philosophical movement completely loyal to the authorities.
In any event, the 1805 tract appended to Platon’s translated volume is generally regarded as a contemporary and accurate, if idealized, description of the Doukhobor faith. During his 1816 visit to Tavria province, the Doukhobors encountered by Robert Pinkerton (1780-1859) vouched for the veracity of the tract, and the Englishman had the satisfaction of hearing them “distinctly state their principles in the very terms” of the document contained in his translation of Platon’s volume.
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